Kennelly, Peter J., Kathleen M. Botham, Owen P. McGuinness, Victor W. Rodwell, and P. Anthony Weil, eds. 2023. Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry. 32nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill. https://www.accessscience.com/content/book/9781260469943
ISBN:
9781260469943
Copyright © 2023 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved.
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A Co-Authors -
B Preface -
A Section I: Structures & Functions of Proteins & Enzymes -
1 Biochemistry & Medicine -
2 Water & pH -
3 Amino Acids & Peptides -
4 Proteins: Determination of Primary Structure BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE PROTEINS & PEPTIDES MUST BE PURIFIED PRIOR TO ANALYSIS SANGER WAS THE FIRST TO DETERMINE THE SEQUENCE OF A POLYPEPTIDE EDMAN DEVISED THE FIRST PRACTICAL METHOD FOR PEPTIDE SEQUENCING MOLECULAR BIOLOGY REVOLUTIONIZED THE DETERMINATION OF PRIMARY STRUCTURE GENOMICS ENABLES PROTEINS TO BE IDENTIFIED FROM SMALL AMOUNTS OF SEQUENCE DATA MASS SPECTROMETRY CAN DETECT COVALENT MODIFICATIONS MASS SPECTROMETERS COME IN VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS PROTEOMICS & THE PROTEOME SUMMARY REFERENCES
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5 Proteins: Higher Orders of Structure BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE CONFORMATION VERSUS CONFIGURATION PROTEINS WERE INITIALLY CLASSIFIED BY THEIR GROSS CHARACTERISTICS PROTEINS ARE CONSTRUCTED USING MODULAR PRINCIPLES FOUR ORDERS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE SECONDARY STRUCTURE MULTIPLE FACTORS STABILIZE TERTIARY & QUATERNARY STRUCTURE BIOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES REVEAL THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE PROTEIN FOLDING PERTURBATION OF PROTEIN CONFORMATION MAY HAVE PATHOLOGIC CONSEQUENCES COLLAGEN ILLUSTRATES THE ROLE OF POSTTRANSLATIONAL PROCESSING IN PROTEIN MATURATION SUMMARY REFERENCES
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B Section II: Enzymes: Kinetics, Mechanism, Regulation, & Role of Transition Metals -
6 Proteins: Myoglobin & Hemoglobin BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE HEME & FERROUS IRON CONFER THE ABILITY TO STORE & TRANSPORT OXYGEN THE OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVES FOR MYOGLOBIN & HEMOGLOBIN SUIT THEIR PHYSIOLOGIC ROLES THE ALLOSTERIC PROPERTIES OF HEMOGLOBINS RESULT FROM THEIR QUATERNARY STRUCTURES NUMEROUS MUTATIONS AFFECTING HUMAN HEMOGLOBINS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED BIOMEDICAL IMPLICATIONS GLYCATED HEMOGLOBIN (HbA1c) SUMMARY REFERENCES
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7 Enzymes: Mechanism of Action BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE ENZYMES ARE EFFICIENT & HIGHLY SPECIFIC CATALYSTS ENZYMES ARE CLASSIFIED BY REACTION TYPE PROSTHETIC GROUPS, COFACTORS, & COENZYMES PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN CATALYSIS CATALYSIS OCCURS AT THE ACTIVE SITE ENZYMES EMPLOY MULTIPLE MECHANISTIC STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE CATALYSIS SUBSTRATES INDUCE CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN ENZYMES HIV PROTEASE ILLUSTRATES ACID–BASE CATALYSIS CHYMOTRYPSIN & FRUCTOSE-2, 6-BISPHOSPHATASE ILLUSTRATE COVALENT CATALYSIS CATALYTIC RESIDUES ARE HIGHLY CONSERVED ISOZYMES ARE DISTINCT ENZYME FORMS THAT CATALYZE THE SAME REACTION THE CATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF ENZYMES FACILITATES THEIR DETECTION THE ANALYSIS OF CERTAIN ENZYMES AIDS DIAGNOSIS ENZYMES FACILITATE DIAGNOSIS OF GENETIC & INFECTIOUS DISEASES RECOMBINANT DNA PROVIDES AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR STUDYING ENZYMES RIBOZYMES: ARTIFACTS FROM THE RNA WORLD SUMMARY REFERENCES
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8 Enzymes: Kinetics BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE DESCRIBED USING BALANCED EQUATIONS CHANGES IN FREE ENERGY DETERMINE THE DIRECTION & EQUILIBRIUM STATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS THE RATES OF REACTIONS ARE DETERMINED BY THEIR ACTIVATION ENERGY NUMEROUS FACTORS AFFECT REACTION RATE THE KINETICS OF ENZYME CATALYSIS ENZYMES DO NOT AFFECT Keq MULTIPLE FACTORS AFFECT THE RATES OF ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS ASSAYS OF ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS TYPICALLY MEASURE THE INITIAL VELOCITY SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION AFFECTS THE REACTION RATE THE MICHAELIS-MENTEN & HILL EQUATIONS MODEL THE EFFECTS OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION KINETIC ANALYSIS DISTINGUISHES COMPETITIVE FROM NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITION MOST ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS INVOLVE TWO OR MORE SUBSTRATES KNOWLEDGE OF ENZYME KINETICS, MECHANISM, AND INHIBITION AIDS DRUG DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY REFERENCES
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9 Enzymes: Regulation of Activities BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE REGULATION OF METABOLITE FLOW CAN BE ACTIVE OR PASSIVE COMPARTMENTATION ENSURES METABOLIC EFFICIENCY & SIMPLIFIES REGULATION REGULATION OF ENZYME QUANTITY MULTIPLE OPTIONS ARE AVAILABLE FOR REGULATING CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ALLOSTERIC EFFECTORS REGULATE CERTAIN ENZYMES ASPARTATE TRANSCARBAMOYLASE IS A MODEL ALLOSTERIC ENZYME REGULATORY COVALENT MODIFICATIONS CAN BE REVERSIBLE OR IRREVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE COVALENT MODIFICATION REGULATES KEY MAMMALIAN PROTEINS PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION IS EXTREMELY VERSATILE INDIVIDUAL REGULATORY EVENTS COMBINE TO FORM SOPHISTICATED CONTROL NETWORKS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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10 The Biochemical Roles of Transition Metals BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE TRANSITION METALS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR HEALTH TOXICITY OF HEAVY METALS TOXICITY OF TRANSITION METALS LIVING ORGANISMS PACKAGE TRANSITION METALS WITHIN ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES PHYSIOLOGIC ROLES OF THE ESSENTIAL TRANSITION METALS ABSORPTION & TRANSPORT OF TRANSITION METALS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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C Section III: Bioenergetics -
11 Bioenergetics: The Role of ATP -
12 Biologic Oxidation BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE FREE ENERGY CHANGES CAN BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF REDOX POTENTIAL OXIDASES USE OXYGEN AS A HYDROGEN ACCEPTOR DEHYDROGENASES PERFORM TWO MAIN FUNCTIONS HYDROPEROXIDASES USE HYDROGEN PEROXIDE OR AN ORGANIC PEROXIDE AS SUBSTRATE OXYGENASES CATALYZE THE DIRECT TRANSFER & INCORPORATION OF OXYGEN INTO A SUBSTRATE MOLECULE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE PROTECTS AEROBIC ORGANISMS AGAINST OXYGEN TOXICITY SUMMARY REFERENCES
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13 The Respiratory Chain & Oxidative Phosphorylation BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE SPECIFIC ENZYMES ARE ASSOCIATED wITH COMPARTMENTS SEPARATED BY THE MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN OXIDIZES REDUCING EQUIVALENTS & ACTS AS A PROTON PUMP ELECTRON TRANSPORT VIA THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN CREATES A PROTON GRADIENT WHICH DRIVES THE SYNTHESIS OF ATP THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN PROVIDES MOST OF THE ENERGY CAPTURED DURING CATABOLISM MANY POISONS INHIBIT THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN THE CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY CAN ACCOUNT FOR RESPIRATORY CONTROL AND THE ACTION OF UNCOUPLERS THE SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY OF THE INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE NECESSITATES EXCHANGE TRANSPORTERS CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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D Section IV: Metabolism of Carbohydrates -
14 Overview of Metabolism & the Provision of Metabolic Fuels BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE OVERVIEW OF SUBSTRATE METABOLISM IN FASTING & FEASTING PATHWAYS TO PROCESS THE MAJOR PRODUCTS OF OUR DIET METABOLIC PATHWAYS AT THE ORGAN & CELLULAR LEVEL THE FLUX THROUGH METABOLIC PATHWAYS MUST BE REGULATED IN A CONCERTED MANNER ALLOSTERIC & HORMONAL SIGNALS CONTROL OF ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS MANY METABOLIC FUELS ARE INTERCONVERTIBLE A SUPPLY OF OXIDIZABLE FUEL IS PROVIDED IN BOTH THE FED & FASTING STATES CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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15 Saccharides (ie, Carbohydrates) of Physiological Significance -
16 The Citric Acid Cycle: A Pathway Central to Carbohydrate, Lipid, & Amino Acid Metabolism BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE PROVIDES SUBSTRATES FOR THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN REACTIONS OF THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE GENERATE REDUCING EQUIVALENTS & CO2 TEN ATP ARE FORMED PER TURN OF THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE VITAMINS PLAY KEY ROLES IN THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE PLAYS A PIVOTAL ROLE IN METABOLISM SUMMARY
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17 Glycolysis & the Oxidation of Pyruvate BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE GLYCOLYSIS CAN FUNCTION UNDER ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS GLYCOLYSIS CONSTITUTES THE MAIN PATHWAY OF GLUCOSE UTILIZATION TISSUES THAT FUNCTION UNDER HYPOXIC CONDITIONS OR HAVE INTRISICALLY HIGH RATES OF GLUCOSE OXIDATION PRODUCE LACTATE GLYCOLYSIS IS REGULATED AT THREE NONEQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS THE OXIDATION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL-COA IS THE IRREVERSIBLE ROUTE FROM GLYCOLYSIS TO THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY
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18 Metabolism of Glycogen BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE GLYCOGENESIS OCCURS MAINLY IN MUSCLE & LIVER GLYCOGENOLYSIS IS NOT THE REVERSE OF GLYCOGENESIS, IT IS A SEPARATE PATHWAY CYCLIC AMP INTEGRATES THE REGULATION OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS & GLYCOGENESIS cAMP ACTIVATES GLYCOGEN PHOSPHORYLASE GLYCOGEN METABOLISM IS REGULATED BY A BALANCE IN ACTIVITIES BETWEEN GLYCOGEN SYNTHASE & PHOSPHORYLASE CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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19 Gluconeogenesis & the Control of Blood Glucose BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE GLUCONEOGENESIS INVOLVES GLYCOLYSIS, THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE, PLUS SOME SPECIAL REACTIONS GLYCOLYSIS & GLUCONEOGENESIS SHARE THE SAME PATHWAY BUT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS, & ARE RECIPROCALLY REGULATED THE BLOOD CONCENTRATION OF GLUCOSE IS REGULATED WITHIN NARROW LIMITS BLOOD GLUCOSE IS DERIVED FROM THE DIET, GLUCONEOGENESIS, & GLYCOGENOLYSIS FURTHER CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY
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20 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway & Other Pathways of Hexose Metabolism BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY FORMS NADPH & RIBOSE PHOSPHATE REACTIONS OF THE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY OCCUR IN THE CYTOSOL THE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY & GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE PROTECT ERYTHROCYTES AGAINST HEMOLYSIS GLUCURONATE, A PRECURSOR OF PROTEOGLYCANS & CONJUGATED GLUCURONIDES, IS A PRODUCT OF THE URONIC ACID PATHWAY INGESTION OF LARGE QUANTITIES OF FRUCTOSE HAS PROFOUND METABOLIC CONSEQUENCES GALACTOSE IS NEEDED FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF LACTOSE, GLYCOLIPIDS, PROTEOGLYCANS, & GLYCOPROTEINS CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY
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E Section V: Metabolism of Lipids -
21 Lipids of Physiologic Significance BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE LIPIDS MAY BE SIMPLE, COMPLEX, OR DERIVED FATTY ACIDS ARE ALIPHATIC CARBOXYLIC ACIDS TRIACYLGLYCEROLS (TRIGLYCERIDES) ARE THE MAIN STORAGE FORMS OF FATTY ACIDS PHOSPHOLIPIDS ARE THE MAIN LIPID CONSTITUENTS OF MEMBRANES GLYCOLIPIDS (GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS) ARE IMPORTANT IN NERVE TISSUES & IN THE CELL MEMBRANE STEROIDS PLAY MANY PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT ROLES LIPID PEROXIDATION IS A SOURCE OF FREE RADICALS AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS SELF-ORIENT AT OIL: WATER INTERFACES SUMMARY REFERENCES
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22 Oxidation of Fatty Acids: Ketogenesis BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS OCCURS IN MITOCHONDRIA β-OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS INVOLVES SUCCESSIVE CLEAVAGE WITH RELEASE OF ACETYL-COA KETOGENESIS OCCURS WHEN THERE IS A HIGH RATE OF FATTY ACID OXIDATION IN THE LIVER KETOGENESIS IS REGULATED AT THREE CRUCIAL STEPS CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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23 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids & Eicosanoids BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THE MAIN PATHWAY FOR DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS (LIPOGENESIS) OCCURS IN THE CYTOSOL THE NUTRITIONAL STATE REGULATES LIPOGENESIS SHORT- & LONG-TERM MECHANISMS REGULATE LIPOGENESIS SOME POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS CANNOT BE SYNTHESIZED BY MAMMALS & ARE NUTRITIONALLY ESSENTIAL MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ARE SYNTHESIZED BY A Δ9 DESATURASE SYSTEM SYNTHESIS OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS INVOLVES DESATURASE & ELONGASE ENZYME SYSTEMS THE ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFA) HAVE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS IN THE BODY EICOSANOIDS ARE FORMED FROM C20 POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS THE CYCLOOXYGENASE PATHWAY IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROSTANOID SYNTHESIS LEUKOTRIENES & LIPOXINS ARE FORMED BY THE LIPOXYGENASE PATHWAY CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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24 Metabolism of Acylglycerols & Sphingolipids -
25 Lipid Transport & Storage BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE LIPIDS ARE TRANSPORTED IN THE PLASMA AS LIPOPROTEINS FREE FATTY ACIDS ARE RAPIDLY METABOLIZED TRIACYLGLYCEROL IS TRANSPORTED FROM THE INTESTINES IN CHYLOMICRONS & FROM THE LIVER IN VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS CHYLOMICRONS & VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS ARE RAPIDLY CATABOLIZED LDL IS METABOLIZED VIA THE LDL RECEPTOR HDL TAKES PART IN BOTH LIPOPROTEIN TRIACYLGLYCEROL & CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM THE LIVER PLAYS A CENTRAL ROLE IN LIPID TRANSPORT & METABOLISM CLINICAL ASPECTS ADIPOSE TISSUE IS THE MAIN STORE OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL IN THE BODY HORMONES REGULATE FAT MOBILIZATION BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE PROMOTES THERMOGENESIS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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26 Cholesterol Synthesis, Transport, & Excretion BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE CHOLESTEROL IS BIOSYNTHESIZED FROM ACETYL-CoA CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIS IS CONTROLLED BY REGULATION OF HMG-CoA REDUCTASE THE CHOLESTEROL BALANCE IN TISSUES IS TIGHTLY REGULATED CHOLESTEROL IS TRANSPORTED BETWEEN TISSUES IN PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS CHOLESTEROL IS EXCRETED FROM THE BODY IN THE BILE AS CHOLESTEROL OR AS BILE ACIDS CLINICAL ASPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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F Section VI: Metabolism of Proteins & Amino Acids -
27 Biosynthesis of the Nutritionally Nonessential Amino Acids -
28 Catabolism of Proteins & of Amino Acid Nitrogen BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE PROTEIN TURNOVER PROTEASES & PEPTIDASES DEGRADE PROTEINS TO AMINO ACIDS INTERORGAN EXCHANGE MAINTAINS CIRCULATING LEVELS OF AMINO ACIDS ANIMALS CONVERT α-AMINO NITROGEN TO VARIED END PRODUCTS BIOSYNTHESIS OF UREA L-GLUTAMATE DEHYDROGENASE OCCUPIES A CENTRAL POSITION IN NITROGEN METABOLISM AMINO ACID OXIDASES REMOVE NITROGEN AS AMMONIA GENERAL FEATURES OF METABOLIC DISORDERS METABOLIC DISORDERS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH EACH REACTION OF THE UREA CYCLE SUMMARY REFERENCES
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29 Catabolism of the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE AMINO ACIDS ARE CATABOLIZED TO INTERMEDIATES FOR CARBOHYDRATE & LIPID BIOSYNTHESIS TRANSAMINATION TYPICALLY INITIATES AMINO ACID CATABOLISM CATABOLISM OF GLYCINE, SERINE, ALANINE, CYSTEINE, THREONINE, & 4-HYDROXYPROLINE ADDITIONAL AMINO ACIDS THAT FORM ACETYL-CoA THE INITIAL REACTIONS ARE COMMON TO ALL THREE BRANCHED-CHAIN AMINO ACIDS METABOLIC DISORDERS OF BRANCHED-CHAIN AMINO ACID CATABOLISM SUMMARY REFERENCES
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30 Conversion of Amino Acids to Specialized Products -
31 Porphyrins & Bile Pigments -
G Section VII: Structure, Function, & Replication of Informational Macromolecules -
32 Nucleotides -
33 Metabolism of Purine & Pyrimidine Nucleotides BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE PURINES & PYRIMIDINES ARE DIETARILY NONESSENTIAL BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES INOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE (IMP) IS SYNTHESIZED FROM AMPHIBOLIC INTERMEDIATES “SALVAGE REACTIONS” CONVERT PURINES & THEIR NUCLEOSIDES TO MONONUCLEOTIDES HEPATIC PURINE BIOSYNTHESIS IS STRINGENTLY REGULATED REDUCTION OF RIBONUCLEOSIDE DIPHOSPHATES FORMS DEOXYRIBONUCLEOSIDE DIPHOSPHATES BIOSYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES THE DEOXYRIBONUCLEOSIDES OF URACIL & CYTOSINE ARE SALVAGED REGULATION OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDE BIOSYNTHESIS HUMANS CATABOLIZE PURINES TO URIC ACID DISORDERS OF PURINE METABOLISM PYRIMIDINE CATABOLITES ARE WATER SOLUBLE OVERPRODUCTION OF PYRIMIDINE CATABOLITES SUMMARY REFERENCES
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34 Nucleic Acid Structure & Function BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE DNA CONTAINS THE GENETIC INFORMATION DNA PROVIDES A TEMPLATE FOR REPLICATION & TRANSCRIPTION THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF RNA DIFFERS FROM THAT OF DNA NEARLY ALL THE SEVERAL SPECIES OF STABLE, ABUNDANT RNAs ARE INVOLVED IN SOME ASPECT OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS THERE EXIST SEVERAL DISTINCT CLASSES OF RNA SPECIFIC NUCLEASES DIGEST NUCLEIC ACIDS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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35 DNA Organization, Replication, & Repair BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE CHROMATIN IS THE CHROMOSOMAL MATERIAL IN THE NUCLEI OF CELLS OF EUKARYOTIC ORGANISMS HIGHER-ORDER STRUCTURES PROVIDE FOR THE COMPACTION OF CHROMATIN SOME REGIONS OF CHROMATIN ARE “ACTIVE” & OTHERS ARE “INACTIVE” DNA IS ORGANIZED INTO CHROMOSOMES THE EXACT FUNCTION OF MUCH OF THE MAMMALIAN GENOME IS NOT WELL UNDERSTOOD ONE PERCENT OF CELLULAR DNA IS IN MITOCHONDRIA GENETIC MATERIAL CAN BE ALTERED & REARRANGED DNA SYNTHESIS & REPLICATION ARE RIGIDLY CONTROLLED SUMMARY REFERENCES
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36 RNA Synthesis, Processing, & Modification BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE RNA EXISTS IN TWO MAJOR CLASSES RNA IS SYNTHESIZED FROM A DNA TEMPLATE BY RNA POLYMERASES RNA SYNTHESIS IS A CYCLICAL PROCESS THAT INVOLVES RNA CHAIN INITIATION, ELONGATION, & TERMINATION THE FIDELITY & FREQUENCY OF TRANSCRIPTION IS CONTROLLED BY PROTEINS BOUND TO CERTAIN DNA SEQUENCES THE EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION MACHINERY IS COMPLEX RNA MOLECULES ARE EXTENSIVELY PROCESSED BEFORE THEY BECOME FUNCTIONAL RNAs CAN BE EXTENSIVELY MODIFIED RNA CAN ACT AS A CATALYST SUMMARY REFERENCES
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37 Protein Synthesis & the Genetic Code BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE GENETIC INFORMATION FLOWS FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN THE NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE OF AN mRNA MOLECULE CONTAINS A SERIES OF CODONS THAT SPECIFY THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE OF THE ENCODED PROTEIN THE GENETIC CODE IS DEGENERATE, UNAMBIGUOUS, NONOVERLAPPING, WITHOUT PUNCTUATION, & UNIVERSAL AT LEAST ONE SPECIES OF tRNA EXISTS FOR EACH OF THE 20 AMINO ACIDS MUTATIONS RESULT WHEN CHANGES OCCUR IN THE NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE LIKE TRANSCRIPTION, PROTEIN SYNTHESIS CAN BE DESCRIBED IN THREE PHASES: INITIATION, ELONGATION, & TERMINATION POSTTRANSLATIONAL PROCESSING AFFECTS THE ACTIVITY OF MANY PROTEINS MANY ANTIBIOTICS WORK BY SELECTIVELY INHIBITING PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN BACTERIA SUMMARY REFERENCES
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38 Regulation of Gene Expression BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE REGULATED EXPRESSION OF GENES IS REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT, DIFFERENTIATION, & ADAPTATION BIOLOGIC SYSTEMS EXHIBIT THREE TYPES OF TEMPORAL RESPONSES TO A REGULATORY SIGNAL SPECIAL FEATURES ARE INVOLVED IN REGULATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENE TRANSCRIPTION SEVERAL STRUCTURAL MOTIFS COMPOSE THE DNA-BINDING DOMAINS OF REGULATORY TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR PROTEINS THE DNA BINDING & TRANSACTIVATION DOMAINS OF MOST REGULATORY PROTEINS ARE SEPARATE GENE REGULATION IN PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES DIFFERS IN OTHER IMPORTANT RESPECTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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39 Molecular Genetics, Recombinant DNA, & Genomic Technology BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY INVOLVES ISOLATION & MANIPULATION OF DNA TO MAKE CHIMERIC MOLECULES PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY ARE NUMEROUS SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AIMS TO INTEGRATE THE FLOOD OF –OMIC DATA IN ORDER TO DECIPHER FUNDAMENTAL BIOLOGIC REGULATORY PRINCIPLES SUMMARY REFERENCES GLOSSARY
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H Section VIII: Biochemistry of Extracellular & Intracellular Communication -
40 Membranes: Structure & Function BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE MAINTENANCE OF A NORMAL INTRA- & EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT IS FUNDAMENTAL TO LIFE MEMBRANES ARE COMPLEX STRUCTURES COMPOSED OF LIPIDS, PROTEINS, & CARBOHYDRATE-CONTAINING MOLECULES ARTIFICIAL MEMBRANES MODEL MEMBRANE FUNCTION THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF MEMBRANE STRUCTURE IS WIDELY ACCEPTED MEMBRANE SELECTIVITY ALLOWS ADJUSTMENTS OF CELL COMPOSITION & FUNCTION ACTIVE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS REQUIRE A SOURCE OF ENERGY TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSES INVOLVES ION CHANNELS & PUMPS TRANSPORT OF GLUCOSE INVOLVES SEVERAL MECHANISMS CELLS TRANSPORT CERTAIN MACROMOLECULES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE BY ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS VARIOUS SIGNALS CAN BE TRANSMITTED ACROSS MEMBRANES GAP JUNCTIONS ALLOW DIRECT FLOW OF MOLECULES FROM ONE CELL TO ANOTHER EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES (EXOSOMES) REPRESENT A NOVEL, & PREVIOUSLY UNDERAPPRECIATED MECHANISM OF CELL–CELL COMMUNICATION MUTATIONS AFFECTING MEMBRANE PROTEINS CAUSE DISEASES SUMMARY REFERENCES
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41 The Diversity of the Endocrine System BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THE TARGET CELL CONCEPT HORMONE RECEPTORS ARE OF CENTRAL IMPORTANCE HORMONES CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN SEVERAL WAYS DIVERSITY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM MANY HORMONES ARE MADE FROM CHOLESTEROL CATECHOLAMINES & THYROID HORMONES ARE MADE FROM TYROSINE THERE IS SIGNIFICANT VARIATION IN THE STORAGE & SECRETION OF HORMONES SOME HORMONES HAVE PLASMA TRANSPORT PROTEINS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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42 Hormone Action & Signal Transduction -
I Section IX: Special Topics (A) -
43 Nutrition, Digestion, & Absorption -
44 Micronutrients: Vitamins & Minerals -
45 Free Radicals & Antioxidant Nutrients -
46 Glycoproteins BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE GLYCOPROTEINS OCCUR WIDELY & PERFORM NUMEROUS FUNCTIONS OLIGOSACCHARIDE CHAINS ENCODE BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION EIGHT SUGARS PREDOMINATE IN HUMAN GLYCOPROTEINS LECTINS CAN BE USED TO PURIFY GLYCOPROTEINS & TO INVESTIGATE THEIR FUNCTIONS THERE ARE THREE MAJOR CLASSES OF GLYCOPROTEINS GLYCOPROTEINS CONTAIN SEVERAL TYPES OF O-GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES N-LINKED GLYCOPROTEINS CONTAIN AN ASPARAGINE-N-ACETYLGLUCOSAMINE LINKAGE SOME PROTEINS ARE ANCHORED TO THE PLASMA MEMBRANE BY GLYCOPHOSPHATIDYL-INOSITOL STRUCTURES SOME PROTEINS UNDERGO RAPIDLY REVERSIBLE GLYCOSYLATION ADVANCED GLYCATION END-PRODUCTS (AGEs) ARE IMPORTANT IN CAUSING TISSUE DAMAGE IN DIABETES MELLITUS GLYCOPROTEINS ARE INVOLVED IN MANY BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES & IN MANY DISEASES GLYCANS ARE INVOLVED IN THE BINDING OF VIRUSES, BACTERIA, & SOME PARASITES TO HUMAN CELLS SUMMARY
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47 Metabolism of Xenobiotics BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE WE ENCOUNTER MANY XENOBIOTICS THAT MUST BE METABOLIZED BEFORE BEING EXCRETED ISOFORMS OF CYTOCHROME P450 HYDROXYLATE A WIDE VARIETY OF XENOBIOTICS IN PHASE 1 METABOLISM CONJUGATION REACTIONS IN PHASE 2 METABOLISM PREPARE XENOBIOTICS FOR EXCRETION OTHER REACTIONS ARE ALSO INVOLVED IN PHASE 2 METABOLISM RESPONSES TO XENOBIOTICS INCLUDE TOXIC, IMMUNOLOGICAL, & CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS SUMMARY
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48 Clinical Biochemistry THE IMPORTANCE OF LABORATORY TESTS IN MEDICINE CAUSES OF ABNORMALITIES IN LEVELS OF ANALYTES MEASURED IN THE LABORATORY THE REFERENCE RANGE VALIDITY OF LABORATORY RESULTS ASSESSMENT OF CLINICAL VALIDITY OF A LABORATORY TEST SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES USED IN CLINICAL CHEMISTRY ORGAN FUNCTION TESTS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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J Section X: Special Topics (B) -
49 Intracellular Traffic & Sorting of Proteins BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE MANY PROTEINS ARE TARGETED BY SIGNAL SEQUENCES TO THEIR CORRECT DESTINATIONS THE CYTOSOLIC PROTEIN SORTING BRANCH DIRECTS PROTEINS TO SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES PROTEINS SORTED VIA THE ROUGH ER BRANCH HAVE N-TERMINAL SIGNAL PEPTIDES PROTEINS FOLLOW SEVERAL ROUTES TO BE INSERTED INTO OR ATTACHED TO THE MEMBRANES OF THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM THE ER FUNCTIONS AS THE QUALITY CONTROL COMPARTMENT OF THE CELL MISFOLDED PROTEINS UNDERGO ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM–ASSOCIATED DEGRADATION TRANSPORT VESICLES ARE KEY PLAYERS IN INTRACELLULAR PROTEIN TRAFFIC THE ASSEMBLY OF MEMBRANES IS COMPLEX SUMMARY REFERENCES
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50 The Extracellular Matrix BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE COLLAGEN IS THE MOST ABUNDANT PROTEIN IN THE ANIMAL WORLD COLLAGENS HAVE A TRIPLE HELIX STRUCTURE ELASTIN CONFERS EXTENSIBILITY & RECOIL ON LUNG, BLOOD VESSELS, & LIGAMENTS FIBRILLINS ARE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF MICROFIBRILS FIBRONECTIN IS INVOLVED IN CELL ADHESION & MIGRATION LAMININ IS A MAJOR PROTEIN COMPONENT OF BASAL LAMINAS PROTEOGLYCANS & GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS BONE IS A MINERALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE BONE IS AFFECTED BY MANY METABOLIC & GENETIC DISORDERS THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CARTILAGE ARE TYPE II COLLAGEN & CERTAIN PROTEOGLYCANS CHONDRODYSPLASIAS ARE CAUSED BY MUTATIONS IN GENES ENCODING TYPE II COLLAGEN & FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTORS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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51 Muscle & the Cytoskeleton BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE MUSCLE IS A STRUCTURALLY & FUNCTIONALLY SPECIALIZED TISSUE MAJOR PROTEIN COMPONENTS OF MUSCLE FIBERS MUSCLE CONVERTS CHEMICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL ENERGY CONTRACTION IS ORCHESTRATED BY THE SECOND MESSENGER Ca2+ CARDIAC MUSCLE RESEMBLES SKELETAL MUSCLE IN MANY RESPECTS MUSCLE CONTRACTION REQUIRES LARGE QUANTITIES OF ATP SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTAINS SLOW (RED) & FAST (WHITE) TWITCH FIBERS MUSCLE TISSUES ARE THE TARGET OF SEVERAL GENETIC DISORDERS SKELETAL MUSCLE CONSTITUTES THE MAJOR RESERVE OF PROTEIN IN THE BODY THE CYTOSKELETON PERFORMS MULTIPLE CELLULAR FUNCTIONS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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52 Plasma Proteins & Immunoglobulins BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE THE BLOOD HAS MANY FUNCTIONS PLASMA CONTAINS A COMPLEX MIXTURE OF PROTEINS ALBUMIN IS THE MOST ABUNDANT PROTEIN IN HUMAN PLASMA THE LEVELS OF CERTAIN PLASMA PROTEINS INCREASE DURING INFLAMMATION OR FOLLOWING TISSUE DAMAGE HAPTOGLOBIN PROTECTS THE KIDNEYS IRON IS STRICTLY CONSERVED INTRACELLULAR IRON HOMEOSTASIS IS TIGHTLY REGULATED IRON DEFICIENCY & ANEMIA ARE COMMON WORLDWIDE SERUM INHIBITORS PREVENT INDISCRIMINATE PROTEOLYSIS DEPOSITION OF PLASMA PROTEINS IN TISSUES LEADS TO AMYLOIDOSIS PLASMA IMMUNOGLOBULINS DEFEND AGAINST INVADERS THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM ALSO PROTECTS AGAINST INFECTION DYSFUNCTIONS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM CONTRIBUTE TO MANY PATHOLOGIC CONDITIONS SUMMARY REFERENCES
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53 Red Blood Cells BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE RED BLOOD CELLS DERIVE FROM HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS RED BLOOD CELLS ARE HIGHLY SPECIALIZED RED BLOOD CELLS MUST BE CONTINUALLY REPLACED OXIDATION OF HEME IRON COMPROMISES OXYGEN TRANSPORT THE RED BLOOD CELL MEMBRANE THE BIOCHEMICAL BASIS OF THE ABO SYSTEM PLATELETS RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY HAS HAD A PROFOUND IMPACT ON HEMATOLOGY SUMMARY REFERENCES
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54 White Blood Cells BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE DEFENSE AGAINST INFECTION REQUIRES MULTIPLE CELL TYPES MULTIPLE EFFECTORS REGULATE THE PRODUCTION OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS LEUKOCYTES ARE MOTILE INVADING MICROBES & INFECTED CELLS ARE DISPOSED BY PHAGOCYTOSIS NEUTROPHILS & EOSINOPHILS EMPLOY NETS TO ENTRAP PARASITES PHAGOCYTE-DERIVED PROTEASES CAN DAMAGE HEALTHY CELLS LEUKOCYTES COMMUNICATE USING SECRETED EFFECTORS LYMPHOCYTES PRODUCE PROTECTIVE ANTIBODIES SUMMARY REFERENCES
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K Section XI: Special Topics (C) -
55 Hemostasis & Thrombosis -
56 Cancer: An Overview BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE SOME GENERAL COMMENTS ON NEOPLASMS FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES OF CARCINOGENESIS CAUSES OF GENETIC DAMAGE RADIATION, CHEMICALS, & CERTAIN VIRUSES ARE MAJOR KNOWN CAUSES OF CANCER ONCOGENES & TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES PLAY KEY ROLES IN CAUSING CANCER GROWTH FACTORS & ABNORMALITIES OF THEIR RECEPTORS & SIGNALING PATHWAYS PLAY MAJOR ROLES IN CANCER DEVELOPMENT MICRO-RNAS ARE KEY PLAYERS IN CARCINOGENESIS & TUMOR METASTASIS EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES & CANCER EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE INVOLVED IN CANCER A NUMBER OF CANCERS DISPLAY A HEREDITARY PREDISPOSITION ABNORMALITIES OF THE CELL CYCLE ARE UBIQUITOUS IN CANCER CELLS GENOMIC INSTABILITY & ANEUPLOIDY ARE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CANCER CELLS MANY CANCER CELLS DISPLAY ELEVATED LEVELS OF TELOMERASE ACTIVITY CANCER CELLS HAVE ABNORMALITIES OF APOPTOSIS THAT PROLONG THEIR PROLIFERATIVE CAPACITY THE TUMOR MICROENVIRONMENT PLAYS A CRITICAL ROLE IN CANCER DEVELOPMENT, METASTASIS, & RESPONSE TO TREATMENT CANCER CELLS EXHIBIT ALTERED METABOLIC PROGRAMMING STEM CELLS IN CANCER TUMORS OFTEN STIMULATE ANGIOGENESIS METASTASIS IS THE MOST SERIOUS ASPECT OF CANCER THERE ARE MANY IMMUNOLOGIC ASPECTS OF CANCER TUMOR BIOMARKERS CAN BE MEASURED IN SAMPLES OF BLOOD & OTHER BODY FLUIDS DETAILED GENETIC ANALYSES OF TUMOR CELLS IS PROVIDING NEW INSIGHTS INTO CANCER KNOWLEDGE OF MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN CARCINOGENESIS HAS LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW THERAPIES MANY CANCERS CAN BE PREVENTED SUMMARY REFERENCES USEFUL WEB SITES GLOSSARY
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57 The Biochemistry of Aging BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE LIFESPAN VERSUS LONGEVITY AGING & MORTALITY: NONSPECIFIC OR PROGRAMMED PROCESSES? WEAR & TEAR THEORIES OF AGING THE MITOCHONDRIAL THEORY OF AGING MOLECULAR REPAIR MECHANISMS COMBAT WEAR & TEAR AGING AS A PREPROGRAMMED PROCESS WHY WOULD EVOLUTION SELECT FOR LIMITED LIFESPANS? SUMMARY REFERENCES
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58 Biochemical Case Histories
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